Exotic Identities: Dance, Difference, and Self-fashioning

And I want a blank-breasted Almeh,
Fluttering her cashmere scarf
To a higher place her head adorned with sparkling rubies;
Spahis, a harem, like a rich Sultan
Of Baghdad or Palmyra.

1Exoticism is better approached through language facts than hard facts. It is not unique to specific places, peoples, or objects only instead refers to a way of looking at and discoursing about all iii. It is a discursive formation whereby the West constructs a geographic Other and thus its identity. In all constructs of Otherness, the Bailiwick (or the Self) stigmatizes a difference (geographic, in this case), essentializes it, and on the basis of that essentialization, negates the identity of the Other. This process frequently legitimizes discrimination. Exoticism is by nature asymmetrical: the Self (in here) has the power to name and place the Other (out there) but not the other way around. Exoticism is too reductive and deterministic as it essentializes difference and relegates Otherness to a space from which the Other derives its essential traits. The exotic, therefore, is the faraway, or rather, that which is far away from us, typically warm, tropical countries. Europe, for instance, would non be exotic to Peruvians or Senegalese. That explains why in the past, "exotic products" stores sold goods from colonies and why today, expressions such every bit "exotic fruit" or "exotic woods" refer exclusively to tropical plants.

2Exotic tin also mean baroque, foreign, or mysterious. When used as an describing word in combination with the term "dance," it conveys notwithstanding another meaning. Now, "exotic dance" no longer simply denotes dances inspired by other cultures (such as belly dancing). Since the mid-1950s, information technology has meant striptease. Today, exotic dance is synonymous with erotic dance. An exotic dancer is one who removes all or some wearable in a sexually suggestive fashion to a paying audience in a performance environment (Skipper and McCaghy 1970). Synonyms include stripper, strip-teaser, go-go dancer, table dancer, and adult entertainer. Some types of exotic trip the light fantastic are purely Western, such as pole dancing, where a partially naked young woman dances around a vertical metal bar. The choreography is non in the slightest exotic in the geographic sense of the term every bit the music more often than not consists of the latest American pop music. In nigh cases, the dancer's costume is non exotic either: stilettos, boas, and bikinis are the standard accoutrements. In upshot, modern exotic dance is not really exotic, and we might even ask if it is actually a trip the light fantastic insofar as information technology serves mainly as a pretext for exposing the torso.

3How did the term "exotic" become a substitute for "erotic"? That question is only valid if this substitution is neither unique to the case of striptease [ii] nor the product of a random semantic shift. If and so, the link between the exotic and the erotic is ancient and unavoidable. Eroticism might even be an intrinsic component of exoticism.

i. The Gaze and the Colonial Exhibition: Origins of Exotic Dance and its Eroticism

4The first clues emerged a hundred or so years before the term "exotic trip the light fantastic toe" took on an erotic meaning.

5Indian dancers appeared in Paris for the first time in 1838, when four temple dancers performed at the Théâtre des Variétés (Décoret-Ahiha 2004a).

half-dozen

At last, they were going to see something strange, mysterious, and charming; something altogether unknown to Europe; something new! Even the almost subdued spectators could not help but exist moved by a fearful curiosity, the kind that might grip you if the doors to a long-since impenetrable fortress were of a sudden flung open.

7This spectator's zeal and the fantasy of the harem (and of entering it…) exhibit the erotic nature not of the testify itself but of the expectations of male audiences. Clearly, the exoticism of the performance is closely tied to its eroticism. The same human relationship is illustrated past Gustave Flaubert's famous reaction to seeing the almeh [3] Kuchuk Hanem perform during his outset visit to Cairo:

In that location were four women dancers and singers, all almehs. The give-and-take "almeh" means "learned woman," "blue stocking," or "whore," which proves, Monsieur, that in all countries, women of letters…!!!) […]. Ii rebec players sitting on the flooring made continuous shrill music. When Kuchuk undressed to dance, a fold in their turbans was lowered over their eyes to forbid them from seeing anything. This modesty had a shocking effect. I spare you any description of the dance as I would write it likewise poorly. To be understood, it has to be illustrated with gestures, and even that would be inadequate. When information technology was fourth dimension to leave, I did not exit.

8Numerous Orientalist artists painted exotic dancers and almehs (Figure 1). The eroticism in these paintings is overt and intentional. Fabricated by and for men, Orientalist painting partly owes its success to beingness able to kindle desire in the viewer. Painting exotic dancers (or scenes from harems, baths, or slave markets) was an opportunity to describe partially naked women in sensual and submissive postures. The male viewer can thus project himself into these paintings and imagine himself as one of the men in the scene, viewing the dancers with a concupiscent gaze.

Figure ane:

Pierre-Louis Bouchard, Les Almées (1893, Musée d'Orsay)

Pierre-Louis Bouchard, Les Almées (1893, Musée d'Orsay)

9At that time, few men traveled to the Orient or went to see these dancers perform in European capitals. Virtually were familiarized with exotic trip the light fantastic toe past painters and writers, with the travel sections of newspapers being the main source of information.

10By the late 19th century, exotic dance was becoming widely known in Europe. In the words of Guy de Maupassant's valet:

11MMy main invited to the Rue Montchanin an Arabian company, fresh from Algiers, and about to perform at the Exhibition. He seized this opportunity of offer selected friends the kickoff fruits of the skill of these very original African artists. One of the women, when she came in, threw herself into my arms, saying most affable things. "Oh! I recognize you,!" she said. "You came to Algiers. I remember you, oh, yes I do!" […] I must say she was very pretty with her dark, round face, her velvety eyes. But when she pressed me to her hot bosom, which was adorned with a sequin necklace making a metal dissonance at her every motion, I thought her anything but attractive. […] At present, all of them, even the former ones, wished to perform the belly trip the light fantastic toe. This became a species of demoniacal revel, each vying with the other in producing the about extraordinary contortions. […] Once again and again, my master, accompanied by one of his guests, left the drawing-room and walked through his bedroom to the solarium, his hands in his pockets, simply as he does when he walks alone about the flat, struggling to put into shape a judgement he is not satisfied with.

12(Cassard 1962)

13This "Arabian company" was performing at the colonial exhibition of the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris, which not only celebrated technological progress (such as the Eiffel Tower or the "Electricity Fairy") but as well aimed to glorify the French Empire and legitimize colonization. Ii of the most popular attractions were a replica of a Javanese village, and a "Street in Cairo," which was lined with cabarets (Egyptian, Moroccan, or Algerian) featuring performances by almehs (Effigy 2). Audiences were so infatuated with the belly dancers that organizers feared that they were detracting from the existent purpose of the Fair and reducing it to frivolous entertainment. The dancing almehs attracted ii,000 visitors daily, and some suspected that the crowds came not out of a real interest in learning most indigenous customs - thereby gaining knowledge that might be useful for promoting the colonial project - but out of superficial and unhealthy curiosity with voyeuristic undertones. For the next l years, almehs were the main attraction at colonial exhibitions. "1 wouldn't cartel to concord a fair without a "Street in Cairo" or with a "Street in Cairo" without almehs!" [4]

Figure 2:

Algerian concert

Algerian concert

14E. de Goncourt provides a rich account of this infatuation:

fifteen…The Street in Cairo, where all the lascivious curiosity of Paris converges at night to lookout the huge Africans with their naive obscene gestures, the swarming population, like cats parading on the tiles… With its acid smell and stinging heat, the Street in Cairo might very well be called Oestrus Road (Rue de Oestrus). The belly dance performed by a naked woman interests me, making me aware of how her feminine organs move firm, of how the parts of her abdomen change neighborhoods. (E. de Goncourt, cited in Charpentier and Fasquelle 1895, 66)

2. Exotic Dancers in Europe from 1890 to 1920

16Show producers noticed how wildly pop the almehs were and, during the 1890s, exotic dance acts began popping upwardly on the major stages of European capitals, and Paris in particular. Donning exotic and skimpy costumes, dancers became specialists in moving to foreign music and replicating the gestures of Arab, Turkish, Persian, Hindu, or Khmer dancers. A few acts stand out from that period: La Goulue'south "Moorish Trip the light fantastic" surrounded by almehs in her "berth" (Figure three); Maud Allan as Salome (Effigy iv); Colette playing the function of an Egyptian dancer; Mata Hari as a Javanese woman (Figure 5); or Cléo de Mérode as a Cambodian. Obviously, their performances were not totally authentic, simply that mattered piddling. Of Cléo de Mérode's act at the 1900 Earth's Fair in Paris, i spectator had this to say: "It'due south not Cambodian at all, but information technology is delightful" (Décoret-Ahiha 2002).

17The exotic and erotic character Oscar Wilde created in 1893 in Salomé and her famous Trip the light fantastic toe of the Seven Veils was heavily influenced by the orientalism (Bentley 2002; Koritz 1994; Walkowitz 2003). "Salomania" swept European capitals, where femmes fatales were languorously shedding veils on stage. H. de Toulouse-Lautrec had good reason to paint the English author in the foreground of Moorish Dance (seen from backside, in a top chapeau, to the left of Jane Avril) (Figure 3).

18Some productions were acclaimed due to the new, non-Western choreography they showcased, such every bit those of Ruth Saint-Denis or the Russian Ballets. Virtually frequently, however, these shows succeeded due to their flashiness and especially to their more or less explicit eroticism. Provocative veils, partial nudity, and freer and more daring postures displayed the body in a sensual lite, in contrast to the traditional European models of dance… and to bourgeois modesty. Although not striptease, these were the kickoff forms of erotic dance. Like Mata Hari, many of these "artists" had no formal dance preparation. Exposing the body had begun to matter more than than choreography.

Effigy 3:

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, La Danse Mauresque, Baraque de la Goulue (1895, Musée d'Orsay)

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, La Danse Mauresque, Baraque de la Goulue (1895, Musée d'Orsay)

19Although these shows exposed the dancers' bodies, they were non often considered scandalous. Instead, they were seen as innocent, authentic representations of other cultures, customs, times, and climates rather than as a way to satiate voyeuristic and depraved Westerners. [5] In the commencement act of Revue Nègre, Josephine Baker donned feathers and satin panties in her operation of the "wild trip the light fantastic toe," a frenzied charleston infused with African trip the light fantastic toe. The following year, inspired by Pierre Loti's Roman d'un Spahi, she crawled on phase on a tree branch wearing a banana belt.

Figure iv:

Maud Allan as Salome (postcard from the 1910s)

Maud Allan as Salome (postcard from the 1910s)

20After being popularized at colonial exhibitions, exotic and erotic dance before long flooded cabarets and showed up in dance halls, [six] on the big screen, [seven] in songs, and on postcards (Effigy 7). In fact, 1 of the pop tunes of 1908 was "Bouss-Bouss-Mé, Danse des Baisers" (cited in Ruscio 2001, 367) (Figure 6):

J'ai vu au Congo	I saw the benjo dance
Danser l'benjo	In the Congo
Et la gigue à Chicago	And the gigue in Chicago
J'ai vu près d'Algers	Near Algiers I saw
50'air dégagé	The graceful airs
Des ouleds au pied léger	Of light-footed ouleds
J'ai vu l'boléro	I saw the bolero
Le fandango	The fandango
Ay pays du toréro	In the country of the torero
Mais ce qui surtout convient à mon goût	Simply what suits me best
Ce que j'aime avant tout	What I like the nigh
Refrain	Chorus
C'est la Bouss-Bouss Mée	Is the Bouss-Bouss Mée
De Mascara	From Mascara
Que dansent les almées	That the almehs dance
Sous les palmiers du Sahara	Beneath Saharan palms
Le vent soulève la Gandourah	The wind lifts the gandoura
Et comme dans un rêve	And like in a dream
On voit… le gai paradis d'Allah	I run into… Allah's happy paradise

Figure v:

Mata Hari (postcard: 1900-1910)

Mata Hari (postcard: 1900-1910)

21The offset exotic dancers (in the West) were thus perceived as erotic, and the outset erotic dancers wore the veil of exoticism. The colonial mindset is what established and perpetuated the link that dance embodied between exoticism and eroticism. Postcolonial, gender, and feminist studies exit picayune doubt that colonization was a business for men, that it was also a sexual adventure, and that in the discursive structure of Otherness and structures of domination, the Woman and the Native share the same role, namely that of slave and sub-human reduced to the status of fauna or object, especially when the woman happens to exist a native or when the native happens to be a woman (McClintock 1995; Phillips 2006; Schick 1999; Yegenoglu 1998). [8]

Figure half dozen:

Canvas music cover - "La Bouss-Bouss-Mée" (1908)

Sheet music embrace - "La Bouss-Bouss-Mée" (1908)

22What factors account for exotic dance being equated with erotic trip the light fantastic toe? Exoticism aside, dance displays the torso in motion and contains a degree of intrinsic eroticism (Hanna 1998). In this respect, the French cancan or Toulouse-Lautrec's paintings of dancers of the late 19th century come up to heed, if not classical ballet and Renoir'south dancers. The world of dance had long been thought of as a demimonde and dancers as demimondaines. Dancers, particularly those appearing in cabarets, were frequently courtesans whose dances were the (symbolic and cheaper) outset step toward putting their bodies at the disposal of others.

Effigy 7:

Postcard (around 1910)

Postcard (around 1910)

23However, the exotic dancer has an additional erotic component. Firstly, the body of the Other is more entitled to be nude and to motility with more sensuality because of the prevailing customs and climates of exotic countries. Secondly, considering its body is more than sensual, animalistic, or visceral, it is more arousing. The Otherness of the native melded with that of the woman, creating a two-sided heterosexuality that objectified both gender and race in the name of the white man'southward arousal. Thirdly, due to its place in the colonial remainder of power, the body of the Other as the object of male fantasies of dominance and violence is perceived equally sexually bachelor and in a state of submission. Fourthly, striptease involves barriers, namely layers of clothes placed on the woman'southward torso and later on removed. "Exoticism is the first of these barriers, for it is e'er of a petrified kind, which transports the body into the world of legend or romance" (Barthes 1970, 147). Exoticism thus renders the trunk more desirable past placing a barrier before information technology and by existence a ways of objectifying it.

24While this accounts for why exotic trip the light fantastic is erotic, it also suggests what erotic dance has to proceeds from existence exotic. To enhance her nakedness, sensuality, and submission, the exotic dancer draws inspiration from abdomen dancing or the Dance of the Veils to kindle desire in male viewers, who imagine themselves every bit pashas in the harem. Symbolically speaking, the dancer's transformation into a torso offered up as an object of fantasy to satisfy the male person gaze represents a process of colonizing the Other's trunk.

25Since the European Enlightenment - a revealing term meaning literally "to cast light on" or "to make seen" - noesis has been conceptualized as a gaze that sees the truth hidden behind appearances. The gaze of the male European observer objectifies the knowledge he seeks, thereby differentiating and distancing himself from it. In fact, modern scientific discipline itself is an epistemology of the act of unveiling and voyeurism, in which the desires to see, know, and control coagulate (Brooks 1993). This explains why the veil holds such a key place in Orientalist fantasies (Yegenoglu 1998) and how striptease - particularly of the exotic variety - illustrates a process unique to (mail)colonial and patriarchal societies, whereby the Other'southward body is subjected to scientific, erotic, and political objectification and domination. In that sense, exotic dance is comparable to Foucault's Panopticon (1975).

3. Exotic Dance and Striptease in the 1950s in the United States

26From the late 19th century to the 1950s, the term "exotic dance" designated dances from other cultures that were unlike from ballet. These were the dances of colonized peoples thought to be primitive, wild, or barbaric (Décoret-Ahiha 2002, 2004a, 2006). Although they had a partially erotic component, their exoticism all the same coincided with the geographic definition of the term.

27Exotic dancers began performing in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th century. At that fourth dimension, the term "exotic" all the same referred to the faraway cultures in which these dances originated. One example was Little Egypt, whose belly dancing on the ever-present "Street in Cairo" at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1894 was well received just also created a scandal (Figure eight). That street was a larger version of the one in the 1889 Paris World Fair, and as well featured the Algerian and Tunisian villages from the Paris off-white, which the organizer of the Chicago Off-white, Sol Bloom, brought in from Paris. In addition to the Egyptian dancers, male viewers were also treated to a "Persian Palace of Eros," where French dancers performed in pseudo-Oriental costumes to Oriental music.

Figure 8:

The Algerian Village at the World'south Columbian Exposition in Chicago (1894)

The Algerian Village at the World'due south Columbian Exposition in Chicago (1894)

28Exotic dances at the Chicago Fair were performed in a context similar to that of Europe, as is illustrated past audiences' reactions. Every bit one onlooker remarked, belly dancers evoked "the coarse animal passion of the East, not the celibate sentiment of Christian lands. Every motion of her trunk is an illustration of her animalism" (Burg 1979, 222).

29Sol Blossom wrote a song for the Chicago Fair, the "Hoochie Coochie Trip the light fantastic," which became a popular hit in the United States. [9] In American vernacular English, that term meant belly-dancing.

30There'due south a place in France where the naked ladies trip the light fantastic;

31There's a hole in the wall where the men spotter it all;

32The mode they shake is plenty to impale a serpent.

33Is this place in France mentioned in the song in fact N Africa, which was exotic in the geographic sense to French people too as Americans? Or was it France itself that was exotic as a result of its libertine reputation? Whatever the vocal ways, the dance was both exotic and erotic, all the same the erotic component had more weight hither than in European dances in the same genre.

34Striptease emerged afterward Earth State of war I and was a flourishing industry by the 1930s. As late as 1942, the concepts of exotic dance and striptease had not yet fully merged. In the latter, "the performer doesn't remove the veils that are her only adornment — but she lifts and swishes them effectually"... "Exotic dance has more strip than a striptease, and practically no tease at all" (Safire (2006) cited the caption an arrested bar possessor gave to a local judge in 1942). The exotic dancer merely undulated in a costume of Eye-Eastern of Latin American inspiration. Around the aforementioned fourth dimension, burlesque shows [ten] were featuring exotic and Eastern dancers in an undeniably erotic calorie-free (Stencell 1999; Allen 1991). Exoticism legitimized and enhanced this eroticism for the same reasons it had a century earlier (Figure 9). In the early 20th century, women were portrayed as dancing for the same reasons as bathing or going to bed, that is, as a pretext for undressing.

35Following World War II, the pregnant of "exotic dance" changed. Initially, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, it evolved to mean a particular type of striptease, simply soon became synonymous with striptease in belatedly 1950s. Every bit i philologist remarked, "stripper seems to be a generic term while exotic denotes a subtype" (Orrick 1956, 234-5). But which subtype? Regrettably, this philologist claimed that he lacked the time do to the fieldwork needed to determine the exact differences between exotic dancers and strippers.

36In 1954, Jennie Lee (also known as the "Bazoom Girl"  [11]) founded the Exotic Dancers' League of North America (a branch of the American Guild of Diversity Artists) in Los Angeles. In her performances, Lee exploited her bonny physique and her startling power to twirl tassels on her breasts and her backside.  [12] Some photographs of her from the 1950s show her performing in exotic decor, still nix near her costumes (or lack thereof) or choreography was in the least exotic (Effigy ten).

37Men's magazines from that menstruation further illustrate the semantic shift. The covers of Exotic Adventures, which first appeared in 1958, showed images of scantily clad women about to be raped or tortured past an African savage, Soviet soldiers, or a Turkish pasha. These were characters onto which readers could project themselves (unless they imagined themselves their victims) (Figure 11). However, the magazine did not focus on faraway adventures. Instead, exoticism was a pretext for depicting sadistic fantasies that would not take been proper in a Western context. Past dissimilarity, the fetish mag Exotique (1951-1960) did not bother with any such pretext in featuring dominatrix femmes fatales wearing skimpy leather garments and stilettos and poised to fulfill masochistic and fetishist fantasies.

38By the late 1950s, the term "exotic dance" had lost its geographic reference and had become a euphemistic give-and-take for "striptease." In the words of a modern stripper: "Exotic dancer is simply a stupid expression used by girls who don't want to admit they're strippers." [13]

Effigy 9:

Traveling caricatural show in 1945: Austin Bros Circus (Stencell 1999, 41).

Traveling burlesque bear witness in 1945: Austin Bros Circus (Stencell 1999, 41).

39Whereas in Europe the term "exotic dance" was hardly in use anymore, in the United States, it came to hateful "striptease." Why did this semantic shift occur in the 1950s in the United states of america? As little research has been washed on the topic, we can only judge why the meaning of the word "exotic," which was of European origin, underwent modify when transposed to the American context. Exoticism marked the Western imagination at the time of the great discoveries of the Renaissance and during the colonial period, when the New World and the notion of Empire were at the forefront of popular consciousness. Evidently, the aforementioned cannot be said of the United states, because it was itself part of the New World and a colony.

Figure ten:

Poster from Jennie Lee's traveling show (mid-1950s) (Stencell 1999, 122)

Poster from Jennie Lee's traveling evidence (mid-1950s) (Stencell 1999, 122)

40America does not actually accept an "elsewhere" on which to build its concept of exoticism, and the northern part of the American continent remained closed to the outside world for a long time. After its victory in Globe State of war II, the United States opened up to the world and turned its political, economic, and cultural attention outward. Equally it was discovering a geographic "elsewhere," the land was too discovering the European categories and practices relative to the conceptualization and depiction of their "elsewhere," of which exoticism was a central effigy. In puritanical American society, exotic trip the light fantastic toe made an impression on people not because of its non-Western choreography, music, or costumes but because of its unbridled eroticism. Exoticism and eroticism therefore became synonyms by style of an audacious shortcut that, with the innocence and relevance of Voltaire'due south Huron male child, gave a meaning to words the Former Earth of colonial powers did non encounter fit, useful, or necessary to explain.

Figure 11

Exotic Adventures, one^st edition, published in Philadelphia in 1958.

Exotic Adventures, ane^st edition, published in Philadelphia in 1958.

41In add-on, African and Native American minorities played central roles in shaping Americans' formulation of the Other past placing it right in front of them. Exoticism could non mean the same thing in a colonizing club (Europe) and a colonial society (the U.s.a.). In a society where jazz was developing along with its related dances (such as the charleston) and an ethnographic or touristic interest in Indian dances was emerging, Americans of European descent did non need to look "very far elsewhere" for "exotic" dances. They just had to get to Harlem or to an Indian reservation. This might account for why the geographic aspect of the term "exotic dance" carried more weight in Europe than in the United states.

42Although exotic dance did assume a purely erotic meaning in North America, this does non mean that European colonization and Orientalism played pocket-size roles in the semantic shift. In the same style, although exotic dance may be practiced by men, this does non detach information technology from the patriarchal system. Until the 1980s, almost all exotic dancers were women. [14] Since then, although men have come to the profession, they remain a pocket-sized minority. Some perform for male person audiences in gay establishments. Moreover, get-go dancers exhibit their bodies more than they trip the light fantastic toe. Equally erotic shows became more commonplace and women'due south status changed, male exotic dancers began performing for primarily - if not exclusively - female person audiences. Examples include the Chippendales, or the primary characters in the movie The Total Monty (Caltaneo 1997). Although these examples accept a comical aspect, they are no less sexual. Today, male strip shows are common sources of entertainment at bachelorette parties. The existence of male dancers who perform for a female (or male person) audience does not diminish the profoundly patriarchal nature of erotic dance (Faludi 1999), which is transposed - not unambiguously - to a new audition without changing its frame of reference. The betoken is that male exotic dancers are no more than exotic than female ones. [15]

four. Dance and the Colonization of Bodies: The Example of Tahiti

43At this signal in our analysis, exotic trip the light fantastic toe appears as a small upshot or a secondary manifestation of colonization, whose merely relevance to the social sciences lies in the fields of cultural geography and discourse deconstruction. Nevertheless, nosotros should go further and leave the symbolic realm and the European cities where dancers performed. The significance of the exotic dancer lies not only in what she does but in what she makes others practice.

44Organizers of the 1889 Paris Fair who feared that the eroticism of the almehs' dances would distract audiences from the colonial focus were probably wrong. Without fifty-fifty knowing it, the almehs likely rallied more young French people to the colonial agenda than did colonial propaganda. The perceived eroticism of the East probable played as great a role in galvanizing the colonial mission as national pride, the lure of riches, scientific curiosity, or the desire to spread Christianity. Exoticism was non an enemy of the colonizer'south agenda. Rather, the eroticism it evoked fabricated it a powerful marry of colonization.

45Exotic dance was a central factor of the eroticization of the East. Paul Gauguin was one of many visitors fascinated by the 1889 Fair (Druick and Zagers 1991). We do not know which particular almehs or other exotic dancers he saw perform there (Spanish, Gypsy, Martinique, African, or other). But we do know that he wrote:

46

In that location are Hindu dancers in the Javanese village [Figure 12]. All the fine art of India is there, and the photographs I have of Kingdom of cambodia are there also. I will go there over again on Th equally I have a rendez-vous with a mulatto girl.

47In fact, Gauguin confused the Khmer, Balinese, and Indian worlds. He also combined an artistic interest in the "art of India" with an erotic ane, because the rendez-vous he mentions is obviously romantic.

Effigy 12:

Javanese dancers.

Javanese dancers.

48Gauguin also saw Khmer and Javanese dancers, though non in the flesh. Khmer dancers were depicted on bas-reliefs from the Temple of Angkor Wat, a replica of which had been gear up up on the exhibition'due south cardinal esplanade. Gauguin also picked up a figurine of a tevada dancer, which inspired several of his works. Javanese adorned the walls of the Javanese temples of Borobudur, of which Gauguin bought several photos. From that time on, those stone figurines of dancers were one of the painter's main sources of inspiration (Staszak 2003). Prior to his departure for Tahiti, he painted these dancers (without their clothes) in several of his works. Gauguin'south geographic, artistic, and erotic imagination - which shaped his expectations of Tahiti and persuaded him to go in that location - was therefore heavily influenced by the exotic dancers on display at the Fair. Nonetheless, one time in Polynesia, these were more present in his paintings than the Tahitian dancers he went to see (Figure 13).

49Oriental dancers shaped Westerners' exotic-erotic fantasies nigh the East. Two figures are of particular significance. The first, as already pointed out, was the almeh and her belly dance. The 2nd was the figure of the vahine (woman) and her Polynesian dances (such as the hula or upa-upa). From the 1920s to the 1940s, Arab and Hawaiian dancers were the two main exotic and erotic attractions of the traveling girl shows (Stencell 1999). In fact, 1 of the many variations of the Hoochie Coochie Trip the light fantastic toe goes as follows:

All the girls in France like to practise the hula dance;

And the mode they shake is enough to kill a ophidian.

50Polynesian dances shaped Western fantasies about Tahiti. Upon "discovering" the island, Bougainville wrote: "The very air the people breathe, their songs, their dances, almost constantly attended with indecent postures, all conspire to call to mind the sweets of dear, and all are called to requite themselves up to them" (Voyage autour du monde, Bougainville 1772). Visual depictions of Tahiti often showed bare-breasted female dancers wearing their strange "vahine" costumes, despite these not beingness their typical attire (Effigy 14). Westerners focused on the sensuality of their dances, at the stop of which they removed all their apparel and offered themselves to the viewers.

Figure thirteen:

Paul Gauguin: Te nave nave fenua (Delicious Earth) (1892, Ohara Museum)

Paul Gauguin: Te nave nave fenua (Succulent World) (1892, Ohara Museum)

51

At nightfall, the Tahitian damsels decked themselves with gorgeous flowers, and rapid beating on the tom-tom bid them all assemble for the upa-upa. They all rushed at the call, their pilus flight, their figures scarcely veiled by thin muslin tunics, and the dancing, which was wildly suggestive, lasted until daybreak.
Pomare winked at these old-globe saturnalia, which a certain governor had in vain attempted to prohibit […] The dancers clapped their hands and sang in chorus to the tom-tom with frenzied cadences. Each in plow danced a figure. The step and the music, dull at outset, gradually increased to a delirious pace, and when the wearied dancer of a sudden stopped in time with a loud crush on the drums, some other sprang forward to take her place and outdo her in fury and indecency.
[…] Rarahu was passionately addicted to these performances, which fired the blood […]. We went home again with our heads turned, intoxicated, as information technology were, past the racket and alive to all sorts of new sensations. Rarahu was similar a different fauna. The upa-upa stirred from the depth of its soul fevered voluptuousness and the savage"

Effigy 14:

50. F. Labrousse, "Danseuse de Taiï,"

Fifty. F. Labrousse, "Danseuse de Taiï,"

52Many brothels exploited the fantasy of Polynesian women and dance. In 18th century London, one featured one such exotic dance show: "This evening at 7:00 precisely, 12 beautiful nymphs, spotless virgins, will deport out the famous Feast of Venus every bit it is historic in Tahiti, under the education and leadership of Queen Obeadera, which role will be taken by Mrs. Hayes herself" (cited in Porter 1990, ix). Josephine Baker did the aforementioned when in the late 1930s, she performed a song and dance routine to "Chant d'Amour de Tahiti" (Love Song of Tahiti): [sixteen]

Tahiti, pays d'flirtation	Tahiti, land of love,
Tahiti, divin séjour	Tahiti, divine getaway.
[…]
Il est un coin merveilleux	There is an enchanting spot,
Fait pour la joie des yeux	Joyous feast for the eyes.
Le soir, sous les palmiers immenses	Evenings under billowing palms,
Dès que la nuit descend	Every bit before long as night falls,
Les femmes, les chansons, les danses	The women, the songs, the dance,
Tous vous prend, vous séduit	Overcome you, seduce you.

53Tahitian dances partly account for why Polynesia was likened to a Garden of Eden, where nudity and sexuality were expressed without shame and where the Western human being could quench his urges. Dance was not simply a trite anecdote in the colonial feel. It was the object of the colonizer's dreams, and through it he would satiate his desire in Tahiti. Of course, the young dancers offered to Western "explorers" were not the free-loving savages Europeans idea them to be. Recent research by ethnographers presents an birthday dissimilar and sordid image, with these "young girls in tears" being sacrificed to Europeans in the hope of deterring them from violence (Tcherkézoff 2004).

54Following the evangelization of the island, Tahitian dances disappeared and were prohibited in 1820 by the Code of Pomaré. However, they returned in the 1950s, in part cheers to the revival of Polynesian culture and identity but also as a event of demand from tourism, which the Tahitians tried to meet past accentuating their exoticism. Today, Tahitian dance is a prime attraction at the island's premier hotels. Tourists flock to run into them because of genuine interest in Polynesian traditions (regardless of how re-created they may be) simply also considering of the quality of the performances. Tourists are likewise drawn to the eroticism of these dances, the astonishing choreography, and the highly unique costumes as well every bit to partially nude youthful bodies. The lustfulness of the dances and the beauty of young Polynesian women describe ribald comments from some male person viewers. Here over again, exoticism and eroticism overlap, just every bit they did a century earlier in the colonial context. Tahitian postcards exploit this overlap. Do they evidence pictures of Polynesian dancing in the involvement of ethnography or folklore or because these dances showcase the bare bodies of Tahitian women?

55The overlap of dance, eroticism, exoticism, and tourism too occurs in strip clubs. These establishments' clients appoint in a type of tourism that presents the same characteristics of classic geographic tourism, namely the importance of the gaze and the search for an interactive experience, a getaway, and a unique identify to explore (Franck 2002, 2006). Stripping is indeed a identify: Stripperland. "Behavior that would be punished out in that location is allowed, even rewarded, in here" [17] (Fenstertock 2006, 199). Sexual tourism is tantamount to the symbolic voyage of clients at exotic dance clubs. Clearly, there are few differences betwixt these types of shows seen in Thailand or the The states other than the possibility of on-site prostitution, which is the realization of the symbolic human activity of putting the dancer's torso at the disposal of another.

5. Representations of Indigenous Women: The Viewpoints and Powers of Dancers

56Since exoticism is linked to colonization and since, every bit post-colonial and feminist writers fence, colonization is linked to masculine desire, the fact that exoticism and eroticism go mitt in hand should non exist surprising. The body of the Other and possession of it are at the heart of this issue. In the colonies, the exotic body is made available through institutionalized forms of prostitution (Taraud 2003a). In the W, this tends to occur symbolically through representations, including in colonial novels (Ruscio 1996; Yee 2000) and films (Bernstein and Studlar 1997; Slavin 2001), Orientalist painting (Thornton 1993), racy songs (Ruscio 2001), ethnographic literature (Schick 1999) and shows (Badou 2000; Bancel 2002), geographic magazines (Lutz and Collins 1993; Rothenberg 1994), and erotic photography and postcards (Belmenouar, Guicheteau, and Combier, 2007; Boëtsch 1993; Boëtsch and Savarese 1999; Taraud 2003b). Such representations came to exist known as ethno-pornography (Schick 1999) or porno-tropics (McClintock 1995).

57Exotic-erotic trip the light fantastic toe holds an intermediary and changing place in those media. In early 20th-century Europe, the exoticism of performances was inextricably linked to geography, while still serving as a pretext for exhibiting some caste of eroticism. Past the end of the century in the United states, exoticism had disappeared or rather, had been replaced by an explicit erotic component. The availability of the body is ambiguous. The degree to which it is undressed depends on the type of show or the phase the show is in. Since the dancer is present in the flesh on stage, the show does not but represent her body merely presents it. Set at a altitude, information technology is in principle simply offered to the gaze, or at most fleeting physical contact (as in lap dancing), which must follow strict rules. However, some exotic dancers are sex workers. The level of eroticism in shows varies, with some bold their pornographic nature outright, as is the case of peep shows (Egan, Frank, and Johnson 2006).

58Like most postcolonial enquiry, this newspaper just considers the signal of view and discourse of Western men, even if the aim is to deconstruct or even condemn it. It is easier for united states to run across through the eyes of Flaubert than those of Kuchuk Hanem. Withal, does neglecting the voices of colonized peoples non run the risk of reducing them, yet again, to passive victims of their (?) history and of perpetuating the symbolic modes of domination under assay? Exotic trip the light fantastic is not necessarily a stigma that those who practice it must bear. Dance can be just as much a vector of identity and expression every bit of Otherness and oppression (Civilisations 2006; Doolittle and Flynn, 2000; Dorier-Apprill 2000; Terrain 2000).

59Yet does this hold true for exotic-erotic dancers? Are strippers who claim to dearest their task necessarily victims in denial (Thompson and Harred 1992)? From the late 19th century, the exotic dancer, of which Salome is the archetype, incarnates the castrating femme fatale suspected of existence a lesbian (Maud Allan) or a spy (Mata Hari) (Bentley 2002). She exploits the desire she is able to evoke in order to impose her will on the viewer. That is, the character she incarnates gets the head of John the Baptist, and the dancer makes a living. Burlesque displayed a charismatic feminine sexuality and an inversion of gender relations that gave artists the "means of using an oppressive system against itself," transforming the stage into "an loonshit within which sexuality could exist used to make patriarchy literally pay for its social and economic exploitation of women" (Allen 1991, 284). In today'southward strip clubs, "ability is exchanged and negotiated among the customers, dancers, managers, order owners, and legal enforcers" (Egan, Frank, and Johnson 2006, xviii), and some strippers can assume and exercise their profession in an empowered and feminist way. [xviii] The emergence of New Burlesque in the 1990s, an ironic feminist and "queer" reinterpretation of the glamour of strippers in the 1940s and 1950s whose figurehead was Dita van Teese (Bosse and Camart, 2004), illustrates the malleability of gender representations. Their pregnant tin change despite their course remaining the same.

Figure xv:

Postcards (effectually 1905)

Postcards (around 1905)

60In the aforementioned vein, some black dancers reappropriated and destabilized stereotypes nearly their ethnicity (Dixon Gottschild 2003). Josephine Baker managed to play with the dominant codes of her time (Jules-Rosette 2007; Lahs-Gonzales 2006) equally she reshaped and appropriated them in her performances and the characters she played. In fact, she instrumentalized them in lodge to make a political statement. Her choreographic inventions were among the foundations of modernistic dance. Her example is an example of norms being transgressed, hierarchies overturned, cultures blended, and the bondage of patriarchal and colonial gild shaken off.

61For example, the cake-walk was an African-American dance in which slaves mimicked the mannerisms their masters displayed as they trotted off to parties. In 1902, information technology became the starting time exotic dance with which Parisians became infatuated (Décoret-Ahiha 2004b). What they did not know was that by imitating these "moves of crazy Negros," [19] with the body and arms stiffly biconvex upwardly and dorsum, they were really making fun of themselves (Figure 15).

62Nor did they know that "negro" dancing and its jazz corollary would describe hordes of white people to the "Negro parties" (Bals nègres) of the 1920s and 1930s. These were rare places and moments of freedom, where white and black bodies touched. In the words of Simone de Beauvoir:

63

On Sunday evenings, we would carelessness the chic if biting haunts of skepticism and let ourselves be elated by the excellent animal zest of the Negroes in the Rue Blomet. […] At that time, very few white people mingled with the colored oversupply, and fewer withal risked dancing on the same floor. When set beside these sinuous Africans and shimmying West Indians, their stiffness was quite appalling, and if they tried to shed it, they tended to await like cases of hysteria under hypnotism.

64These "Negro parties" were coming together points for descendants of slaves from the Americas and indigenous people from the African colonies. In fact, Parisian haunts such every bit Flo, Blomet, Grand Duc, and Cabane Cubaine - which Léopold Sédar Senghor frequented - were one of the birthplaces of the Négritude motion.

Decision

65Why write a paper on exotic trip the light fantastic for a special consequence of a journal, dedicated to cultural geography? The reply is that other than being a interesting topic, exotic dance effectively illustrates the link betwixt gender issues and colonization as well as the geographic factors that influence constructs of Otherness (Staszak 2009). This newspaper also shows what geography can learn from gender, feminist, and postcolonial studies. Lastly, information technology is an example of a style of geography that looks at representations without separating them from the practices that produce them or that they decide. This is a geography that does not split the social, the political, and the social, and one less obsessed with space and more open up to embracing non-spatial topics. Is it geography? Is information technology cultural geography? The time may have come to wonder if these questions are of any use.

Notes

• [1]

  I would like to thank Christine Chivallon for her valuable input on an earlier version of this paper.

• [2]

  In the same way, "Turkish beauties" came to mean the female buttocks and "Asiatic ideas" sexual desire (Schick 1999, 55).

• [iii]

  In Arab republic of egypt and the Arab world, almehs are literate women (?lima means learned) who sing, dance, and
  recite poetry.

• [4]

  Le Panorama: Paris s'charm. Paris: L. Baschet, around 1900 (cited in Décoret-Ahiha 2004b, 27).

• [5]

  Besides, photos of blank-breasted indigenous women in family magazines such as National Geographic were non considered indecent or specially erotic (Rothenberg 1994).

• [6]

  From 1900 to 1930s, a dance craze swept the West. People abandoned the social dances of the European tradition in favor of more exotic dances such as the cake-walk, tango, flim-flam trot, charleston, merengue, and others (Décoret-Ahiha 2004a).

• [seven]

  Dancers – belly dancers in particular – appeared in the earliest films. Thomas Edison produced eight curt films 1894 and 1896 that featured oriental dancers. One of these films, Fatima's Hoochie Coochie Trip the light fantastic toe, consisted of the performance by dancer Little Egypt at the Chicago Globe Fair (encounter beneath). The moving-picture show was censured, which shows its overtly erotic nature (www.venusbelly.com/fatim.htm; Allen 1991). Several feature films also showcased exotic dance (Slavin 2001), including Danseuse de Marrakech, which told the inevitably tragic love story of Helm Portal and the beautiful Kalina (Mathot 1949), and Piccadilly, which recounted the love life of Shosho (played by Anna May Wong), an exotic dancer in a London cabaret Dupont 1929).

• [viii]

  Tropes of the sexualization of the Empire with relevance to this topic include: the equation of the Orient with the eternal feminine; the virgin ready for the taking; the colonizers' view of faraway lands every bit virgin and fertile spaces to be penetrated; the perception of the colonies (specially Tahiti) every bit sexual paradises and the idea of a primitive sexuality; the feminization of the native; the threat of rape and of an uncontrolled sexuality unique to natives made "hysterical;" and Western despotism and female submission. Of grade, the link between sexuality and colonization goes beyond the role played by indigenous women in the fantasies (or the practices) of the male heterosexual (potential) colonizer (Schick 1999). However, that is the focus of this newspaper.

• [nine]

  9"The Streets of Cairo" and "Poor Footling State Maid" are dissimilar titles of the aforementioned song. Ironically, the music was borrowed from an Arab song (Kradoutja) introduced into French republic in the 17th century (Fuld 1995).

• [10]

  In the United States, burlesque was a type of diversity evidence. Present in theaters and sideshows at fairs, it consisted of parodic entertainment featuring partially nude women. Born in the 1850s, this genre had similarities with vaudeville before taking a abrupt plough toward striptease in the 1920s (Allen 1991).

• [11]

  A contraction of "bazooka" and "bosom."

• [12]
• [13]
• [xiv]

  Some male exotic dancers had careers in the West. I instance is Féral Benga (Dakar, 1906; Châteauroux, 1957), who was known as the "beautiful Negro Adonis," and who, similar Josephine Baker, was popular in Paris from the 1920s to the early 1940s. However, cases such every bit his were few and far between.

• [15]

  Male exotic dancers (in the geographic sense) exercise be and, in some instances, they too captivate audiences. Examples include the whirling dervishes of Turkey or dancers of the Polynesian haka. Nevertheless, their appeal is in no way erotic in nature. Male abdomen-dancers did exist in the Turkish world. However, the gaze and soapbox of Western male heterosexuals "constructed mod Oriental dance as a female fertility ritual, which silenced the widespread custom of male person dancers in the East" (Karayanni 2004, 70).

• [sixteen]

  This beloved song was written by V. Scotto and Thou. Koger and was performed by another "island treasure" who exploited another brand of exoticism: the famous Corsican croonerTino Rossi.

• [17]

  Author's italics.

• [18]

  R. D. Egan, K. Frank, and Chiliad. L. Johnson were all exotic dancers and are at present specialists in sociology, cultural anthropology, and women'southward studies, respectively. They represent third-wave feminism, which is anti-essentialist and postal service-structuralist. Its aim is to de-stigmatize sexuality by proposing a more positive and radical interpretation of it. Many of the essays they collected are auto-ethnographic narratives from strippers and their customers, nearly which accurate generalizations are difficult to make.

• [19]

  Les Coulisses Parisiennes, Paris, La Vie de Paris, around 1902 (cited in Décoret-Ahiha 2004b, 64).

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